As Psychology Essay

unity of the key differences between the concepts of gip- edge computer depot and keen-sighted-term storage is succession. Duration refers to how long a wareho use deceases before it is no longer available. swindle term memories dont come onlast precise long. An example of fast memory in action would be trying to call a seven any(prenominal)-digit ph peer slight enactment that you fuck off vindicatory been stipulation. This is maintained in the short-term memory by REPETITION until the number is dialled, and and indeed fades once the conversation starts. The flair of life most(prenominal) citizenry keep instruction in their short-term memory for more(prenominal)(prenominal) than than than a few seconds is to rehearse it.So statement is integrity expression of keeping a memory diligent. The result of verbal narrative is that immediate memory atomic number 18 held in the short-term memory store and eventually become long term. Duration of lon g-term memory long-term memory refers to memories that last anywhere for 2 hours to 100 days add-on, i. e. anything that isnt short term. Some memories argon genuinely long lasting. For example Shepard (1967) tested duration of long-term memory. He showed thespians 612 memorable pictures, virtuoso at a time. An hour posterior they were shown some of these pictures among a set of others and showed around perfect recognition. Four months later they were unflurried able to recognise 50% of photographs.The signifi roll in the hayt to be remembered was more meaningful to the participants and accordingly the duration of the LTM was better. Key think on duration of STM Lloyd and Marg atomic number 18t Peterson (1959) conducted a landmark con of the duration of STM. They en enumerateed the support of 24 students attending their university. The experimenter said a consonant syllable to the participant followed by a three-digit number (e. g. WRT 303 or SCX 591). The consonant syll able was selected to drive home no meaning. Immediately subsequently auditive sense the syllable and number, the participants had to count backwards from this number in 3s or 4s until told to hold in.Then the participants were asked to pull back the gimcrack syllable. The reason for figuring backwards was to stop the participants rehearsing the syllable because rehearsal would aid opine. Each participant was abandoned 2 practice auditions followed by eight trials. On to from separately one one trial the retention interval (time spent counting backwards) was different. They bring that participants remembered round 90% when thither was only a 3-second interval and rough 2% when there was an 18-second interval. This suggests that, when rehearsal is prevented, STM lasts about 20 seconds at most. military rank The conclusions from the Peterson and Peterson study switch been challenged. We might turn over that, in this experiment, participants were relying on more tha n STM alone because they knew they were going to be asked to recall the items after an interval filled with a distracting activity. Other research such as Marsh et al, (1997) has suggested that when participants do not seem to be tested after this interval, forgetting may occur after just 2 seconds. This suggests that our understanding of the duration of STM may not be as clean as eldest thought.In fact, more recent research even suggests that the duration of STM is not as short as Peterson and Petersons study would suggest. Nairnes et al (1999) plunge that items could be recalled after as long as 96 seconds. In Nairnes study, participants were asked to recall the very(prenominal) items across trials, whereas in the earlier study different items were use on for each one trial, which would have led to interference between items, decreasing recall. cognitive content and Encoding Capacity is a measure of how much can be held in memory. It is measured in terms of combats of b reeding such as number of digits.STM has a very exceptional ability (less than 7 chunks of breeding) whereas LTM has potentially unlimited capacity. Increasing the capacity of STM The magic number 7+/-2 George Miller (1956) wrote a memorable obligate called The magic number seven plus or minus twain. He reviewed psychological research and concluded that the couplet of immediate memory is 7 people can cope reasonably hale with counting seven dots flashed onto a disguise scarce not many more than this. Miller to a fault found out that people can recall 5 haggle as well as they can recall 5 garner we chunk things together and can thus remember more.The size of the chunk matters Simon (1974) found that people had a shorter memory pass over for larger chunks, such as 8- sacred scripture phrases, than small chunks, such as one-syllable words. Evaluation Cowan (2001) reviewed a variety of studies on the capacity of STM and concluded that STM is wish wellly to be limited to above 4 chunks. This suggests that STM may not be as extensive as was first thought. Vogel et al, (2001) looked at the capacity of STM for optic learning and as well as found that 4 items was about the limit. Encoding in STM and LTM PAGE 23 Encoding is the way nurture is changed so that it can be stored in memory. development enters the witticism via the senses. It is then stored in various forms such as visual codes (picture), acoustic forms (sounds), or a semantic form (the meaning of the experience). Information in the STM is mainly encoded acoustically ( education is stand for as sound) whereas cultivation in LTM tends to be encoded semantically (information is represented by its meaning). acoustical and semantic encoding We can compare the ways information is stored in STM and LTM in terms of encoding of the memory trace. Acoustic coding involved coding information in terms of the way it soundsThe multi-store molding of memory The multi-store model of memory (MSM) is a n history of how memory processes work. The MSM was first accountd by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968. thither is three stores/components in the MSM which are the centripetal memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Sensory memory The sensory memory is composed of several stores which are the eyes, ears, nose, etc, and the corresponding areas of the head teacher. If a persons attention is strained on one of the sensory stores, then the data is transferred to STM. attending is the first step in call up something.Short-term memory Information held in STM is in a lean state. It impart disappear sexual intercoursely quickly if rehearsal is prevented. Information testament also disappear if new information enters STM pushing out the victor information. This happens because STM has a limited capacity. long-run memory The second step is despicable information from STM to LTM. Atkinson and Shiffrin said that this also happens through rehearsal. The more s omething is rehearsed the more it will be remembered. This kind of rehearsal is referred to concern rehearsal. Evaluation The sensory storeSperling (1920) gave participants a grid of digits and letters for 50 milliseconds. They were any asked to write down all 12 items or they were told they would hear a spook immediately after the exposure and they should just write down that lyric. When asked to handle the completely thing their recall was poorer (5 items recalled, about 42%) then when asked to give one row only (3 items recalled, 75%). This show that information decays rapidly in the sensory store. The serial position effect Glazer and Cunitz (1966) gave participants a list of 20 words, presented one at a time, and then asked to recall words they could remember.They tended to remember the words from the start of the list (primary effect) and from the end of the list ( recency effect) but were less good at recalling words in the middle. The primary effectuate occur because the first words are best rehearsed and transferred to LTM. The recency effect occurs because these words are in the STM when people start recalling the list. Areas of the brain associated with STM and LTM One way to demonstrate the existence of separate stores in memory is to link STM and LTM to specific areas of the brain.Modern techniques of scanning the brain can be used to encounter images of the active brain and enable us to see what region is active when a person is undertaking particular taxs. look into (Beardsley, 1977) has found that the prefrontal cortex is active when individuals are functional on a designate in STM. The working memory model Baddeley and finger (1974) used the term working memory to refer to that bit of memory that you are victimisation when you are working on a multiform depute which requires you to store information as you go along. The components of the working memory primal executive This is the key component of the working memory.The funct ion of the telephone exchange executive is to mastermind attention to particular chores, determining at any time how resources are allocated to tasks. The fundamental executive has a very limited capacity. Phonological loop-the-loop This also has a limited capacity. The phonological loop deals with the auditory information and preserves the order of information. Baddeley (1986) merely sub divided this loop into the phonological store and an articulative process. The phonological store holds the words you hear, like an inner ear. The articulative process is used for words that are heard or seen (inner voice). Visuo-spatial sketch blow upThe Visuo-spatial sketch pad is used when you have to plan a spatial task (like getting from one room to another). Visual and/or spatial information is temporary stored here. Visual information is what things looks like and spatial information is the family relationship between things. Logie (1995) suggested that the Visuo-spatial sketchpad c an be divided into a visual cache (store) and inner scribe which deals with spatial relations. Episodic devotee store Baddeley (2000) added the episodic buffer because he acquire the model needed a full general store. The episodic buffer is an extra storage system that has a limited capacity.It integrates information from the central executive, the phonological loop and the Visuo-spatial sketchpad and also from the long-term memory. Evaluation Doing two tasks using the same or different components Hitch and Baddeley (1976) gave participants two tasks to do simultaneously. Task 1 occupied the central executive and task 2 either involved the articulative loop or both the central executive and articulatory loop. Task 1 was slower when disposed(p) a task involving both the central executive and articulatory loop. The speeding on task 1 was the same whether using the articulatory loop or no extra task.This shows that doing two tasks that involve the same component causes difficulty . testify for the central executive Bunge et al. (2000) used an fMRI to see which parts of the brain were most active when participants were doing two tasks (reading a fourth dimension and recalling the final word in each sentence). The same brain areas were active in either dual- or single task occasions but there was significantly more activation in the dual-task ensure indicating that increase demands were reflected in brain activity. Evidence for the Visuo-spatial sketchpad Baddeley et al. (1975b) exhibit the existence of thee Visuo-spatial sketch pad.Participants were presumptuousness a visual interbreeding task (they had to track a moving light with a pointer). At the same time they were given kne of two other tasks task 1 was to describe all the angles on the letter F, task 2 was to perform a verbal task. Task 1 was very difficult but not task 2. This is also evidence related to the effect of doing two tasks using the same or different components. Evidence for the e pisodic buffer Baddeley et al. (1987) found that, when participants were shown words and then asked for immediate recall, their consummation was much better for sentences (related words) then for unrelated words.This supports the idea of an immediate memory store for itesms that are neither visual nor phonological. Accuracy of Eye Witness proof Loftus and Palmer were interested in whether misleading evoke distorted the truth of an witnesss immediate recall. What did they do? 45 students were shown seven films of different traffic accidents. After each film the participants were given a questionnaire which asked them to describe the accident and then answer a series of specific questions about it. There was one critical question. This question was about how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?One group of participants were given this question whereas the other five groups were given the verbs smashed, collided, bumped or contacted in place of the word hit. What did they find? The group given the universe of discourse smashed estimated a higher speed that the other groups (about 41 mph). The group given the word contacted estimated the lower speed (about 30 mph). Evaluation Supporting DO subsequent (PAGE 33) Factors influencing the aline statement of eye witnessing testimony some(prenominal) researchers have looked at the relationship between anxiety and accuracy in eyewitness testimony. Deffenbacher et al. 2004) carried out a meta-analysis of 18 studies published between 1974 and 1997, looking at the make of heightening anxiety on accuracy of eyewitness recall. From these studies it was clear that there was sizeable support for the hypothesis that high levels of tune negativity impacted on the accuracy of eyewitness memory. Anxiety enhances recall Christianson and Hubienette (1993) found when they questioned 58 real witnesses to bank robberies. Those witnesses who were jeopardise in some way were more accurate in their recall and re membered more occurrence than those who had been onlookers.This continued to be true even 15 months later. The weapon focus effect Johnson and Scott (1976) identified the weapon-focus effect. In their initial experiment, Loftus et al. used two conditions, one involving a weapon and one not. In both conditions participants heard a discussion in an adjoining room. In condition 1 a man emerged memory a pen and with grease on his hands. In conditions 2 the discussion was rather more heated and a man emerged holding a paperknife covered in blood. When asked to identify the man from 50 photos, participants in condition 1 were 49% more accurate, compared with 33% accuracy in condition 2.This suggests that the weapon may have put off attention from the person holding it and thereof explain why eyewitnesses sometimes have poor recall for certain elaborate of violent crimes. Evaluation Explaining the apparent contradiction Deffenbacher suggests that this contradiction in research findin g could best be explained with reference to the Yerkes-Dodson law, which states that performance improves with increase of stimulation up to some optical point then declines with but increase. Many researchers believe that anxiety effects in eye-witness testimony are curvilinear.This intend that small to medium increases in arousal may increase the accuracy of memory, but high levels interfere with accuracy. Those studies which had found change memory accuracy were most probably dealing with increase arousal inside the first part of the Yerkes-Dodson curve, whereas studies which showed that accuracy decreases with increased arousal were most likely operating(a) in the second part of the curve. more EVALUATION The cognition interview fisher and Geiselman (1992) developed an interviewing technique, the cognitive interview.The victor cognitive interview technique could be characterised by four distinct components 1. Report everything (hypermnesia) 2. genial reinstatement of cont ext- the interviewer encourages the interviewee to mentally recreate the environment and contacts from the original incident. 3. Changing the order- the interviewer may try selection ways through the timeline of the incident, for example by reversing the order in which events occurred. 4. Changing the perspective- the interviewee is asked to recall the incident from multiple perspectivesThe first two components are base on the article of faith that if there is consistency between the material incident and the recreated situation, there is an increased likeliness that witnesses will recall more detail therefore more accurate in their recall. The latter two components are based on the assumption that information that discovered can be retrieved through a number of different routes into an individuals memory. Evaluation Kohnken et al. , (1999) did a meta-analysis of 53 studies found, on average, an increase of 34% in the sum of money of correct information generated in the cogni tive interview compared with standard interviewing techniques.Milne and Bull (2002) examined the relative effectiveness of each of the four components of the cognitive interview. Undergraduate students and children were interviewed using one of the components of the cognitive interview and compared to a control condition (where they were instructed to simply try again). When participants were interviewed using a combination of the components mental reinstatement and report everything their recall was significantly higher than in all other conditions.